Occurrence of the white shark Carcharodon carcharias in the
Northeast Atlantic: new records from north-western Spain

Presencia del tiburón blanco Carcharodon carcharias en el
Atlántico nororiental: nuevos registros en el noroeste de España

Claudio Barría

Departamento de Biología Funcional, Genética, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, España; Asociación
para el Estudio y Conservación de los Elasmobranquios y sus Ecosistemas (Catsharks), Barcelona, España

Corresponding author: claudio@catsharks.org, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6769-4578

Ana I. Colmenero

Asociación para el Estudio y Conservación de los Elasmobranquios y sus Ecosistemas (Catsharks),
Barcelona, España; Institut de Ciències del Mar (ICM-CSIC), Barcelona, España

colmenero@icm.csic.es, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2402-0922

Alfredo López

Departamento de Biología & CESAM, Universidade de Aveiro. Campus de Santiago, Aveiro, Portugal;
Coordinadora para o Estudo dos Mamíferos Mariños CEMMA, Gondomar, España

cemmaorganizacion@gmail.com, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7945-3675

Pablo Covelo

Coordinadora para o Estudo dos Mamíferos Mariños CEMMA, Gondomar, España

pablo_cov@yahoo.es, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4507-2943

Xabier Vázquez-Pumariño

Birding Galicia, Santiago de Compostela, España

xabiervp@gmail.com, https://orcid.org/0009-0004-1918-5874

Pol Carrasco-Puig

Asociación para el Estudio y Conservación de los Elasmobranquios y sus Ecosistemas (Catsharks), Barcelona, España;
Unidad de Zoología Marina, Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universitat de València, Paterna, España;
Fundación Oceanogràfic de la Comunitat Valenciana, Ciudad de las Artes y las Ciencias, Valencia, España

pol@catsharks.org, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6100-0675

Gonzalo Mucientes

Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas (IIM-CSIC), Vigo, España; Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, (CIBIO-InBIO), Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal; Asociación Ecoloxía Azul – Blue Ecology, Vigo, España

gonzalomucientes@gmail.com, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6650-3020

ABSTRACT

The Northeast Atlantic hosts several chondrichthyan species, including the iconic yet critically endangered white shark Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758), whose presence remains extremely rare, as reflected in the scarcity of records in this region. Due to the uncertainty regarding its distribution and abundance, this study compiled and updated scientifically confirmed reports of this species. A total of 24 records were identified, of which 22 derive from the scientific literature, including accounts dating as far back as the 16th century. The two remaining records correspond to the first confirmed white shark occurrences in north-western Spain, observed off the coasts of Galicia and Asturias in 2021. Given their exceptional rarity and similar size, it is hypothesized that these sightings involve the same individual. These novel records highlight the potential role of citizen science in monitoring this elusive species in the region.

Keywords: Citizen science, historical survey, Iberian Peninsula, marine conservation, Lamnidae, sightings.

RESUMEN

El Atlántico nororiental alberga varias especies de condrictios, incluyendo el emblemático pero críticamente amenazado tiburón blanco Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758), cuya presencia es extremadamente rara, como refleja la escasez de registros en la región. Debido a la incertidumbre sobre su distribución y abundancia, este estudio ha recopilado y actualizado los registros científicamente confirmados de esta especie. Se identificaron un total de 24 citas, de las cuales 22 proceden de la literatura científica, incluyendo registros desde el siglo XVI. Los dos restantes corresponden a las primeras observaciones confirmadas del tiburón blanco en el noroeste de España, frente a las costas de Galicia y Asturias en 2021. Dada su excepcional rareza y similar tamaño, se hipotetiza que estas observaciones corresponden al mismo individuo. Estos nuevos registros destacan el potencial de la ciencia ciudadana para el seguimiento de esta esquiva especie en la región.

Palabras clave: Avistamientos, ciencia ciudadana, conservación marina, Lamnidae, Península Ibérica, revisión histórica.

Supplementary information ↓

CONTENIDO

1. INTRODUCTION

2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

3. RESULTS

4. DISCUSSION

REFERENCES

1. INTRODUCTION

Sharks (Class Chondrichthyes) are considered a large and diverse group of cartilaginous fishes, with 560 species described (Compagno, 2001Compagno, L.J.V., 2001. Sharks of the World. Volume 2. Bullhead, Mackerel and Carpet Sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes). FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes No. 1, Vol. 2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 269 pp.; Weigmann, 2016Weigmann, S., 2016. Annotated checklist of the living sharks, batoids and chimaeras (Chondrichthyes) of the world, with a focus on biogeographical diversity. Journal of Fish Biology, 88 (3): 837–1037. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfb.12874; Fricke et al., 2025Fricke, R., Eschmeyer, W.N. & van der Laan, R., 2025. Eschmeyer’s catalog of fishes: genera, species, references. Available from: http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/ichthyology/catalog/fishcatmain.asp [accessed Apr. 2026].). They play a key role in the functioning and maintenance of marine ecosystems, with their importance reinforced by their global distribution, covering a wide range of habitats from the poles to specific rivers (Compagno, 1984Compagno, L.J.V., 1984. FAO Species Catalogue. Vol. 4. Sharks of the World. An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date. Part 1. Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes. FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 125, Vol. 4, Part 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 249 pp.; Barría et al., 2015Barría, C., Coll, M. & Navarro, J., 2015. Unravelling the ecological role and trophic relationships of uncommon and threatened elasmobranchs in the western Mediterranean Sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 539: 225-240. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps11494; Weigmann, 2016Weigmann, S., 2016. Annotated checklist of the living sharks, batoids and chimaeras (Chondrichthyes) of the world, with a focus on biogeographical diversity. Journal of Fish Biology, 88 (3): 837–1037. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfb.12874; Dulvy et al., 2021Dulvy, N.K., Pacoureau, N., Rigby, C.L., Pollom, R.A., Jabado, R.W., Ebert, D.A., Finucci, B., Pollock, C.M., Cheok, J., Derrick, D.H., Herman, K.B., Sherman, C.S., VanderWright, W.J., Lawson, J.M., Walls, R.H.L., Carlson, J.K., Charvet, P., Bineesh, K.K., Fernando, D., Ralph, G.M., Matsushiba, J.H., Hilton-Taylor, C., Fordham, S.V. & Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2021. Overfishing drives over one-third of all sharks and rays toward a global extinction crisis. Current Biology, 31 (21): 4773–4787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.08.062). The waters of the Northeast Atlantic are no exception, hosting approximately 119 species (Walls & Dulvy, 2021Walls, R.H. & Dulvy, N.K., 2021. Tracking the rising extinction risk of sharks and rays in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Scientific Reports, 11 (1): 15397. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94632-4). However, as the Mediterranean Sea, this region is characterised as a hotspot for endangered species (Dulvy et al., 2021Dulvy, N.K., Pacoureau, N., Rigby, C.L., Pollom, R.A., Jabado, R.W., Ebert, D.A., Finucci, B., Pollock, C.M., Cheok, J., Derrick, D.H., Herman, K.B., Sherman, C.S., VanderWright, W.J., Lawson, J.M., Walls, R.H.L., Carlson, J.K., Charvet, P., Bineesh, K.K., Fernando, D., Ralph, G.M., Matsushiba, J.H., Hilton-Taylor, C., Fordham, S.V. & Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2021. Overfishing drives over one-third of all sharks and rays toward a global extinction crisis. Current Biology, 31 (21): 4773–4787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.08.062; Walls & Dulvy, 2021Walls, R.H. & Dulvy, N.K., 2021. Tracking the rising extinction risk of sharks and rays in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Scientific Reports, 11 (1): 15397. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94632-4). The most threatened species tend to be large, slow-growing, shallow-water dwellers with high migratory activity (Pacoureau et al., 2021Pacoureau, N., Rigby, C.L., Kyne, P.M., Sherley, R.B., Winker, H., Carlson, J.K., Fordham, S.V., Barreto, R., Fernando, D., Francis, M.P., Jabado, R.W., Herman, K.B., Liu, K.-M., Marshall, A.D., Pollom, R.A., Romanov, E.V., Simpfendorfer, C.A., Yin, J.S., Kindsvater, H.K. & Dulvy, N.K., 2021. Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and rays. Nature, 589 (7843): 567–571. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-03173-9; Walls & Dulvy, 2021Walls, R.H. & Dulvy, N.K., 2021. Tracking the rising extinction risk of sharks and rays in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Scientific Reports, 11 (1): 15397. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94632-4). A prime example is the white shark (Carcharodon carcharias Linnaeus, 1758), currently listed as critically endangered in both the Mediterranean and the Northeast Atlantic (Soldo et al., 2015Soldo, A., Bradai, M.N. & Walls, R.H.L., 2015. Carcharodon carcharias (Europe assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T3855A48948790., 2016Soldo, A., Bradai, M.N. & Walls, R.H.L., 2016. Carcharodon carcharias (Mediterranean assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T3855A16527829.; Spaet, 2021Spaet, J.L.Y., 2021. Carcharodon carcharias (Green Status assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T3855A385520213.).

The white shark is a pelagic species that typically occurs near continental and insular shelves, but dispersing individuals have also been recorded in oceanic waters (Compagno, 1984Compagno, L.J.V., 1984. FAO Species Catalogue. Vol. 4. Sharks of the World. An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date. Part 1. Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes. FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 125, Vol. 4, Part 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 249 pp.; Curtis et al., 2014Curtis, T.H., McCandless, C.T., Carlson, J.K., Skomal, G.B., Kohler, N.E., Natanson, L.J., Burgess, G.H., Hoey, J.J. & Pratt Jr, H.L., 2014. Seasonal distribution and historic trends in abundance of white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, in the western North Atlantic Ocean. PLoS ONE, 9 (6): e99240. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099240; Boldrocchi et al., 2017Boldrocchi, G., Kiszka, J., Purkis, S., Storai, T., Zinzula, L. & Burkholder, D., 2017. Distribution, ecology, and status of the white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, in the Mediterranean Sea. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 27: 515-534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-017-9470-5; Huveneers et al., 2018Huveneers, C., Apps, K., Becerril-García, E.E., Bruce, B., Butcher, P.A., Carlisle, A.B., Chapple, T.K., Christiansen, H.M., Cliff, G., Curtis, T.H., Daly-Engel, T.S., Dewar, H., Dicken, M.L., Domeier, M.L., Duffy, C.A.J., Ford, R., Francis, M.P., French, G.C.A., Galván-Magaña, F., García-Rodríguez, E., Gennari, E., Graham, B., Hayden, B., Hoyos-Padilla, E.M., Hussey, N.E., Jewell, O.J.D., Jorgensen, S.J., Kock, A.A., Lowe, C.G., Lyons, K., Meyer, L., Oelofse, G., Oñate-González, E.C., Oosthuizen, H., O’Sullivan, J.B., Ramm, K., Skomal, G.S., Sloan, S., Smale, M.J., Sosa-Nishizaki, O., Sperone, E., Tamburin, E., Towner, A.V., Wcisel, M.A., Weng, K.C. & Werry, J.M., 2018. Future research directions on the “elusive” white shark. Frontiers in Marine Science, 5: 455. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00455). Its diving behaviour, combined with its broad global distribution in both temperate and occasionally in warm waters, complicates research efforts (Bonfil et al., 2010Bonfil, R., Francis, M.P., Duffy, C., Manning, M.J. & O’Brien, S., 2010. Large-scale tropical movements and diving behavior of white sharks Carcharodon carcharias tagged off New Zealand. Aquatic Biology, 8: 115–123. https://doi.org/10.3354/ab00217; Duffy et al., 2016Duffy, C.A., 2016. First record of the white shark Carcharodon carcharias (Lamniformes: Lamnidae) from Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Marine Biodiversity Records, 9 (1): 52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41200-016-0033-6; Huveneers et al., 2018Huveneers, C., Apps, K., Becerril-García, E.E., Bruce, B., Butcher, P.A., Carlisle, A.B., Chapple, T.K., Christiansen, H.M., Cliff, G., Curtis, T.H., Daly-Engel, T.S., Dewar, H., Dicken, M.L., Domeier, M.L., Duffy, C.A.J., Ford, R., Francis, M.P., French, G.C.A., Galván-Magaña, F., García-Rodríguez, E., Gennari, E., Graham, B., Hayden, B., Hoyos-Padilla, E.M., Hussey, N.E., Jewell, O.J.D., Jorgensen, S.J., Kock, A.A., Lowe, C.G., Lyons, K., Meyer, L., Oelofse, G., Oñate-González, E.C., Oosthuizen, H., O’Sullivan, J.B., Ramm, K., Skomal, G.S., Sloan, S., Smale, M.J., Sosa-Nishizaki, O., Sperone, E., Tamburin, E., Towner, A.V., Wcisel, M.A., Weng, K.C. & Werry, J.M., 2018. Future research directions on the “elusive” white shark. Frontiers in Marine Science, 5: 455. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00455; Salinas-de-León et al., 2024Salinas-de-León, P., Zanchi, S. & Moya-Serrano, A.V., 2024. First record of a white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) in Ecuadorian waters coinciding with the 2021 La Niña ENSO event. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 107: 1291–1296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-024-01620-4). Furthermore, its distribution appears to be discontinuous, with limited interchange across some regions (Bonfil et al., 2005Bonfil, R., Meÿer, M., Scholl, M.C., Johnson, R., O’Brien, S., Oosthuizen, H., Swanson, S., Kotzen, D. & Paterson, M., 2005. Transoceanic migration, spatial dynamics, and population linkages of white sharks. Science, 310 (5745): 100-103. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1114898; Jorgensen et al., 2010Jorgensen, S.J., Reeb, C.A., Chapple, T.K., Anderson, S., Perle, C., Van Sommeran, S.R. & Block, B.A., 2010. Philopatry and migration of Pacific white sharks. Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences, 277 (1682): 679-688. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2009.1155; Huveneers et al., 2018Huveneers, C., Apps, K., Becerril-García, E.E., Bruce, B., Butcher, P.A., Carlisle, A.B., Chapple, T.K., Christiansen, H.M., Cliff, G., Curtis, T.H., Daly-Engel, T.S., Dewar, H., Dicken, M.L., Domeier, M.L., Duffy, C.A.J., Ford, R., Francis, M.P., French, G.C.A., Galván-Magaña, F., García-Rodríguez, E., Gennari, E., Graham, B., Hayden, B., Hoyos-Padilla, E.M., Hussey, N.E., Jewell, O.J.D., Jorgensen, S.J., Kock, A.A., Lowe, C.G., Lyons, K., Meyer, L., Oelofse, G., Oñate-González, E.C., Oosthuizen, H., O’Sullivan, J.B., Ramm, K., Skomal, G.S., Sloan, S., Smale, M.J., Sosa-Nishizaki, O., Sperone, E., Tamburin, E., Towner, A.V., Wcisel, M.A., Weng, K.C. & Werry, J.M., 2018. Future research directions on the “elusive” white shark. Frontiers in Marine Science, 5: 455. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00455; Wagner et al., 2024Wagner, I., Smolina, I., Koop, M.E.L., Bal, T., Lizano, A.M., Choo, L.Q., Hofreiter, M., Gennari, E., de Sabata, E., Shivji, M.S., Noble, L.R., Jones, C.S. & Hoarau, G., 2024. Genome analysis reveals three distinct lineages of the cosmopolitan white shark. Current Biology, 34 (15): 3582-3590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.06.076).

Although several studies have recently been carried out on the biology and ecology of this species (Colefax et al., 2020Colefax, A.P., Kelaher, B.P., Pagendam, D.E. & Butcher, P.A., 2020. Assessing white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) behavior along coastal beaches for conservation-focused shark mitigation. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7: 268. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.00268; Kanive et al., 2021Kanive, P.E., Rotella, J.J., Chapple, T.K., Anderson, S.D., White, T.D., Block, B.A. & Jorgensen, S.J., 2021. Estimates of regional annual abundance and population growth rates of white sharks off central California. Biological Conservation, 257: 109104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109104; Lee et al., 2021Lee, K.A., Butcher, P.A., Harcourt, R.G., Patterson, T.A., Peddemors, V.M., Roughan, M., Harasti, D., Smoothey, A.F. & Bradford, R.W., 2021. Oceanographic conditions associated with white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) habitat use along eastern Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 659: 143-159. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps13572), much remains unknown (Huveneers et al., 2018Huveneers, C., Apps, K., Becerril-García, E.E., Bruce, B., Butcher, P.A., Carlisle, A.B., Chapple, T.K., Christiansen, H.M., Cliff, G., Curtis, T.H., Daly-Engel, T.S., Dewar, H., Dicken, M.L., Domeier, M.L., Duffy, C.A.J., Ford, R., Francis, M.P., French, G.C.A., Galván-Magaña, F., García-Rodríguez, E., Gennari, E., Graham, B., Hayden, B., Hoyos-Padilla, E.M., Hussey, N.E., Jewell, O.J.D., Jorgensen, S.J., Kock, A.A., Lowe, C.G., Lyons, K., Meyer, L., Oelofse, G., Oñate-González, E.C., Oosthuizen, H., O’Sullivan, J.B., Ramm, K., Skomal, G.S., Sloan, S., Smale, M.J., Sosa-Nishizaki, O., Sperone, E., Tamburin, E., Towner, A.V., Wcisel, M.A., Weng, K.C. & Werry, J.M., 2018. Future research directions on the “elusive” white shark. Frontiers in Marine Science, 5: 455. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00455; Ferretti et al., 2024Ferretti, F., Shea, B.D., Gambardella, C., Jenrette, J.F., Moro, S., Echwikhi, K., Schallert, R.J., Gallagher, A.J., Block, B.A. & Chapple, T.K., 2024. On the tracks of white sharks in the Mediterranean Sea. Frontiers in Marine Science, 11: 1425511. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1425511). This is notable given that the white shark is one of the most iconic and emblematic shark species (Klimley, 1994Klimley, A.P., 1994. The predatory behavior of the white shark. American Scientist, 82 (2): 122-133.; Kempster & Collin, 2014Kempster, R.M. & Collin, S.P., 2014. Iconic species: Great white sharks, basking sharks, and whale sharks. In: J.J. Techera & N. Klen (eds.). Sharks: Conservation, Governance and Management. Routledge: 213–235.; Aich et al., 2021Aich, R.S., 2021. Great white shark a hyperreal monster; conceptual contemplation on the post-Jaws image. Academia Letters, 2. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL3448; Whitenack et al., 2022Whitenack, L.B., Mickley, B.L., Saltzman, J., Kajiura, S.M., Macdonald, C.C. & Shiffman, D.S., 2022. A content analysis of 32 years of Shark Week documentaries. PLoS ONE, 17 (11): e0256842. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256842). Major aggregations tend to occur near highly productive habitats, where large concentrations of marine mammals and other groups they prey upon are found (Compagno, 1984Compagno, L.J.V., 1984. FAO Species Catalogue. Vol. 4. Sharks of the World. An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date. Part 1. Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes. FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 125, Vol. 4, Part 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 249 pp.; Skomal et al., 2012Skomal, G.B., Chisholm, J. & Correia, S.J., 2012. Implications of increasing pinniped populations on the diet and abundance of white sharks off the coast of Massachusetts. In: M.L. Domeier (ed.). Global perspectives on the biology and life history of the great white shark. CRC Press, Boca Raton: 405–417.; Boldrocchi et al., 2017Boldrocchi, G., Kiszka, J., Purkis, S., Storai, T., Zinzula, L. & Burkholder, D., 2017. Distribution, ecology, and status of the white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, in the Mediterranean Sea. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 27: 515-534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-017-9470-5; Huveneers et al., 2018Huveneers, C., Apps, K., Becerril-García, E.E., Bruce, B., Butcher, P.A., Carlisle, A.B., Chapple, T.K., Christiansen, H.M., Cliff, G., Curtis, T.H., Daly-Engel, T.S., Dewar, H., Dicken, M.L., Domeier, M.L., Duffy, C.A.J., Ford, R., Francis, M.P., French, G.C.A., Galván-Magaña, F., García-Rodríguez, E., Gennari, E., Graham, B., Hayden, B., Hoyos-Padilla, E.M., Hussey, N.E., Jewell, O.J.D., Jorgensen, S.J., Kock, A.A., Lowe, C.G., Lyons, K., Meyer, L., Oelofse, G., Oñate-González, E.C., Oosthuizen, H., O’Sullivan, J.B., Ramm, K., Skomal, G.S., Sloan, S., Smale, M.J., Sosa-Nishizaki, O., Sperone, E., Tamburin, E., Towner, A.V., Wcisel, M.A., Weng, K.C. & Werry, J.M., 2018. Future research directions on the “elusive” white shark. Frontiers in Marine Science, 5: 455. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00455). Many studies are focused on regions with high white shark abundances, such as California (Goldman & Anderson, 1999Goldman, K.J. & Anderson, S.D., 1999. Space utilization and swimming depth of white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, at the South Farallon Islands, central California. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 56 (4): 351-364. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007520931105; Dewar, 2004Dewar, H., Domeier, M. & Nasby-Lucas, N., 2004. Insights into young of the year white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, behavior in the Southern California Bight. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 70 (2): 133-143. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EBFI.0000029343.54027.6a; Chapple et al., 2011Chapple, T.K., Jorgensen, S.J., Anderson, S.D., Kanive, P.E., Klimley, A.P., Botsford, L.W. & Block, B.A., 2011. A first estimate of white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, abundance off Central California. Biology Letters, 7 (4): 581-583. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2011.0124), South Africa (Compagno, 1991Compagno, L.J.V, 1991. Government protection for the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) in South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 87 (7): 284-285.; Hussey et al., 2012Hussey, N.E., McCann, H.M., Cliff, G., Dudley, S.F.J., Wintner, S.P. & Fisk, A.T., 2012. Size-based analysis of diet and trophic position of the white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) in South African waters. In: M.L. Domeier (ed.). Global Perspectives on the Biology and Life History of the White Shark. CRC Press, Boca Raton: 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1201/b11532-5; Hewitt et al., 2018Hewitt, A.M., Kock, A.A., Booth, A.J. & Griffiths, C.L., 2018. Trends in sightings and population structure of white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, at Seal Island, False Bay, South Africa, and the emigration of subadult female sharks approaching maturity. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 101 (1): 39-54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-017-0679-x), New Zealand (Francis et al., 2015Francis, M. P., Duffy, C., & Lyon, W., 2015. Spatial and temporal habitat use by white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) at an aggregation site in southern New Zealand. Marine and Freshwater Research, 66 (10): 900–918. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF14186), or Australia (Bruce et al., 2006, 2019Bruce, B.D., Harasti, D., Lee, K., Gallen, C. & Bradford, R., 2019. Broad-scale movements of juvenile white sharks Carcharodon carcharias in eastern Australia from acoustic and satellite telemetry. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 619 : 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12969; Spaet et al., 2020Spaet, J.L., Patterson, T.A., Bradford, R.W. & Butcher, P.A., 2020. Spatiotemporal distribution patterns of immature Australasian white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias). Scientific Reports, 10 (1): 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-66876-z). When analysing the species’ general distribution, the North Atlantic Ocean also emerges as an important location (Compagno, 1984Compagno, L.J.V., 1984. FAO Species Catalogue. Vol. 4. Sharks of the World. An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date. Part 1. Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes. FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 125, Vol. 4, Part 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 249 pp.; Casey & Pratt, 1985; Huveneers et al., 2018Huveneers, C., Apps, K., Becerril-García, E.E., Bruce, B., Butcher, P.A., Carlisle, A.B., Chapple, T.K., Christiansen, H.M., Cliff, G., Curtis, T.H., Daly-Engel, T.S., Dewar, H., Dicken, M.L., Domeier, M.L., Duffy, C.A.J., Ford, R., Francis, M.P., French, G.C.A., Galván-Magaña, F., García-Rodríguez, E., Gennari, E., Graham, B., Hayden, B., Hoyos-Padilla, E.M., Hussey, N.E., Jewell, O.J.D., Jorgensen, S.J., Kock, A.A., Lowe, C.G., Lyons, K., Meyer, L., Oelofse, G., Oñate-González, E.C., Oosthuizen, H., O’Sullivan, J.B., Ramm, K., Skomal, G.S., Sloan, S., Smale, M.J., Sosa-Nishizaki, O., Sperone, E., Tamburin, E., Towner, A.V., Wcisel, M.A., Weng, K.C. & Werry, J.M., 2018. Future research directions on the “elusive” white shark. Frontiers in Marine Science, 5: 455. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00455). Nevertheless, the vast majority of the records are reported in the Northwest Atlantic (Curtis et al., 2014Curtis, T.H., McCandless, C.T., Carlson, J.K., Skomal, G.B., Kohler, N.E., Natanson, L.J., Burgess, G.H., Hoey, J.J. & Pratt Jr, H.L., 2014. Seasonal distribution and historic trends in abundance of white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, in the western North Atlantic Ocean. PLoS ONE, 9 (6): e99240. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099240). In contrast, although the presence of white sharks in the Northeast Atlantic dates back to the Pleistocene (Bor & Peters, 2015Bor, J.T. & Peters, W., 2015. The Pliocene locality Balgoy (province of Gelderland, The Netherlands) and a new record of the great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758). Cainozoic Research, 15 (1-2): 59-73.), confirmed records are almost non-existent in comparison with other regions (i.e., California, South Africa and Australia), with most references representing anecdotal observations (Fergusson, 1996Fergusson, I.K., 1996. Distribution and autoecology of the white shark in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. In: A.P. Klimley & D.G. Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press, San Diego: 321–345.).

The white shark may have played the ecological role of an apex predator since the Pleistocene (Bor & Peters, 2015Bor, J.T. & Peters, W., 2015. The Pliocene locality Balgoy (province of Gelderland, The Netherlands) and a new record of the great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758). Cainozoic Research, 15 (1-2): 59-73.). However, despite the potential importance of the Northeast Atlantic region for the species, the ecological role of large predatory sharks in this area remains poorly understood, as broader patterns of shark population status and ecosystem function in the region are incompletely resolved (Walls & Dulvy, 2021Walls, R.H. & Dulvy, N.K., 2021. Tracking the rising extinction risk of sharks and rays in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Scientific Reports, 11 (1): 15397. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94632-4). In the present day, several lamnid species (Lamnidae family), including the porbeagle shark Lamna nasus (Bonaterre, 1788) and the shortfin mako shark Isurus oxyrinchus (Rafinesque, 1810), are known to occur in the region (Bañon et al., 2010Bañon, R., Villegas-Ríos, D., Serrano, A., Mucientes, G. & Arronte, J.C., 2010. Marine fishes from Galicia (NW Spain): an updated checklist. Zootaxa, 2667 (1): 1–27 https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.2667.1.1; Biais et al., 2017Biais, G., Coupeau, Y., Séret, B., Calmettes, B., Lopez, R., Hetherington, S. & Righton, D., 2017. Return migration patterns of porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus) in the Northeast Atlantic: implications for stock range and structure. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 74 (5): 1268-1276. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsw233), while the presence of the critically endangered white shark in this area remains largely undocumented (Soldo et al., 2015Soldo, A., Bradai, M.N. & Walls, R.H.L., 2015. Carcharodon carcharias (Europe assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T3855A48948790., 2016Soldo, A., Bradai, M.N. & Walls, R.H.L., 2016. Carcharodon carcharias (Mediterranean assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T3855A16527829.; Spaet, 2021Spaet, J.L.Y., 2021. Carcharodon carcharias (Green Status assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T3855A385520213.). Thus, the goal of this study is to compile all scientifically recorded data on the presence of the white shark in the Northeast Atlantic, including, for the first time, confirmed sightings of the species off the coast of Galicia and Asturias in north-western Spain.

2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

To examine the presence of the white shark in the Northeast Atlantic, a bibliographic review was carried out from 2023 to 2025 using Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar, aiming to collect scientifically reported occurrences of this species in this region over the last 100 years (Fig. 1; Table 1). In addition to the academic databases, citizen science platforms (i.e., iNaturalist and GBIF) and social media (i.e., YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter/X) were also examined for records not published in peer-reviewed journals. However, these sources were approached with caution due to the potential risk of false records, particularly in the absence of images or other verifiable information. Consequently, records from scientific publications were prioritized over those from social media and citizen science platforms. The main information extracted from these records was the date, location and source of the observations.

Fig. 1. Map showing scientifically confirmed white shark (Carcharodon carcharias Linnaeus, 1758) records in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean reported over the last 100 years; numbers correspond to Table 1.

Fig. 1. Mapa de los registros científicamente confirmados del tiburón blanco (Carcharodon carcharias Linnaeus, 1758) en el océano Atlántico nororiental reportados en los últimos 100 años; los números corresponden a la Tabla 1.

Table 1. Compilation of scientifically confirmed white shark (Carcharodon carcharias Linnaeus, 1758) records in the Northeast Atlantic, including the new occurrences documented in this study through citizen science (italicised).

Tabla 1. Recopilación de registros científicamente confirmados del tiburón blanco (Carcharodon carcharias Linnaeus, 1758) en el Atlántico nororiental, incluyendo las nuevas observaciones documentadas en este estudio a través de ciencia ciudadana (en cursiva).

Nº	Location	Date	Reference
1	Saintonge, France	16th century	Quero et al. (2011)Quero, J.C., Spitz, J. & Leaute, J.P., 2011. Faune française de l’Atlantique. Requins. 1. Hexanchiformes & Lamniformes (Craniata: Elasmobranchii). Annales de la Société des Sciences naturelles de la Charente-Maritime, 10 (2): 207–223.
2	San Cristóbal, Gran Canaria, Spain	1799	Bellon & Mateu (1931)Bellon, G. & Mateu, L., 1931. Carcharodon carcharias. Notas del Instituto Español de Oceanografía / Notas y Resúmenes del IEO, II. Instituto Español de Oceanografía.
3	La Rochelle, France	1821	Quero et al. (2011)Quero, J.C., Spitz, J. & Leaute, J.P., 2011. Faune française de l’Atlantique. Requins. 1. Hexanchiformes & Lamniformes (Craniata: Elasmobranchii). Annales de la Société des Sciences naturelles de la Charente-Maritime, 10 (2): 207–223.
4	Loire-Inférieure, France	1843	Quero et al. (1978)Quero, J.C., Verron, R. & Cattin, Y., 1978. Observations ichtyologiques effectuées en Charente-Maritime en 1977. Annales de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de la Charente-Maritime, 6 (5): 428-439.
5	Bay of Biscay, France	1851	Quero et al. (1978)Quero, J.C., Verron, R. & Cattin, Y., 1978. Observations ichtyologiques effectuées en Charente-Maritime en 1977. Annales de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de la Charente-Maritime, 6 (5): 428-439.
6	Charente et Vendée, La Rochelle, France	1866	Quero et al. (1978)Quero, J.C., Verron, R. & Cattin, Y., 1978. Observations ichtyologiques effectuées en Charente-Maritime en 1977. Annales de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de la Charente-Maritime, 6 (5): 428-439.
7	La Rochelle, France	1872	Quero et al. (2011)Quero, J.C., Spitz, J. & Leaute, J.P., 2011. Faune française de l’Atlantique. Requins. 1. Hexanchiformes & Lamniformes (Craniata: Elasmobranchii). Annales de la Société des Sciences naturelles de la Charente-Maritime, 10 (2): 207–223.
8	Coast of Charente-Inférieure, France	March 1880	Quero et al. (2011)Quero, J.C., Spitz, J. & Leaute, J.P., 2011. Faune française de l’Atlantique. Requins. 1. Hexanchiformes & Lamniformes (Craniata: Elasmobranchii). Annales de la Société des Sciences naturelles de la Charente-Maritime, 10 (2): 207–223.
9	Dakar, M´Bodiene Village, Senegal	1945	Cadenat & Blache (1981)Cadenat, J. & Blache, J., 1981. Requins de Méditerranée et l’Atlantique. Faune Tropicale, Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique, Paris.
10	Cape Verde	1953	Cousteau & Dumas (1953)Cousteau, J.Y. & Dumas, F., 1953. The silent World. Harper & Row. New York.
11	Île de Gorée, Dakar, Senegal	1957	Cadenat & Blache (1981)Cadenat, J. & Blache, J., 1981. Requins de Méditerranée et l’Atlantique. Faune Tropicale, Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique, Paris.
12	Near La Rochelle, France	24 May 1977	Quero et al. (2011)Quero, J.C., Spitz, J. & Leaute, J.P., 2011. Faune française de l’Atlantique. Requins. 1. Hexanchiformes & Lamniformes (Craniata: Elasmobranchii). Annales de la Société des Sciences naturelles de la Charente-Maritime, 10 (2): 207–223.
13	Dakar, Senegal	1982	Barrull & Mate (2002)Barrull, J. & Mate, I. 2002. Tiburones del Mediterráneo. Llibrería El Set-ciènces, Arenys de Mar: 153 pp.
14	Tenerife, Spain	1987	Fergusson (1996)Fergusson, I.K., 1996. Distribution and autoecology of the white shark in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. In: A.P. Klimley & D.G. Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press, San Diego: 321–345.
15	Ponta Garça, São Miguel, Azores, Portugal	10 February 1990	Fergusson (1996)Fergusson, I.K., 1996. Distribution and autoecology of the white shark in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. In: A.P. Klimley & D.G. Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press, San Diego: 321–345.
16	Punta Langosteira, Galicia, Spain	29 September 2021	This study (GWS 1)
17	Ribadesella, Asturias, Spain	21 October 2021	This study (GWS 2)
18	São Miguel, Azores, Portugal	undated	Fergusson (1996)Fergusson, I.K., 1996. Distribution and autoecology of the white shark in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. In: A.P. Klimley & D.G. Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press, San Diego: 321–345.
19	Sant Vincent Island, Cape Verde	undated	Fergusson (1996)Fergusson, I.K., 1996. Distribution and autoecology of the white shark in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. In: A.P. Klimley & D.G. Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press, San Diego: 321–345.
20	Portugal	undated	Fergusson (1996)Fergusson, I.K., 1996. Distribution and autoecology of the white shark in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. In: A.P. Klimley & D.G. Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press, San Diego: 321–345.
21	Faial, Azores, Portugal	undated	Fergusson (1996)Fergusson, I.K., 1996. Distribution and autoecology of the white shark in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. In: A.P. Klimley & D.G. Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press, San Diego: 321–345.
22	Moroccan coast, Morocco	undated	Fergusson (1996)Fergusson, I.K., 1996. Distribution and autoecology of the white shark in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. In: A.P. Klimley & D.G. Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press, San Diego: 321–345.
23	Madeira, Portugal	undated	Fergusson (1996)Fergusson, I.K., 1996. Distribution and autoecology of the white shark in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. In: A.P. Klimley & D.G. Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press, San Diego: 321–345.
24	Madeira, Portugal	undated	Fergusson (1996)Fergusson, I.K., 1996. Distribution and autoecology of the white shark in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. In: A.P. Klimley & D.G. Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press, San Diego: 321–345.

Two sightings in Spanish waters were further analysed (Fig. 2A-E), reported on September 29th 2021 near Punta Langosteira, Galicia (43.344965° N, 8.516042° W) (GWS 1; Fig. 2A-B), and on October 16th 2021 near Ribadesella, Asturias (43.572028° N, 5.033112° W) (GWS 2; Fig. 2C-E). These were respectively reported by a port worker and by fishermen, and both were uploaded to the citizen science platform “Observadores del Mar” (Sea Watchers: www.seawatchers.net). To validate the identification of the species in both observations, key morphological characteristics were examined, including the fusiform and robust body, conical snout, and broadly triangular serrated teeth (Compagno, 2001Compagno, L.J.V., 2001. Sharks of the World. Volume 2. Bullhead, Mackerel and Carpet Sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes). FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes No. 1, Vol. 2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 269 pp.; Ebert & Dando, 2021Ebert, D.A. & Dando, M. 2021. Field guide to sharks, rays & chimaeras of Europe and the Mediterranean. Princeton University Press, Woodstock. 383 pp.; Soldo & Bakiu, 2024Soldo, A. & Bakiu, R. 2024. Additional historical records of the great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias (Lamniformes: Lamnidae) in the eastern Adriatic: Updating regional occurrence of a critically endangered shark. Annales: Series Historia Naturalis, 34 (1): 11-20. https://doi.org/10.19233/ASHN.2024.02).

This study complied with all applicable international and national environmental legislation in Spain: it was non-invasive, adhering to national regulations by observing the white sharks without disturbance.

3. RESULTS

Since 1931, a total of 24 scientifically confirmed records of white sharks in the Northeast Atlantic have been collected through an analysis of the scientific literature (n = 22) and additional sources (i.e., social media and citizen science platforms) (n = 2) (Fig. 1; Table 1). The northernmost report occurred in France, while the southernmost was located on the continental shelf off Senegal. Insular reports were also recorded from the Macaronesian islands, including the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, and Cape Verde (Table 1). Of the 22 records documented from the scientific literature, only 15 were dated. These were primarily concentrated in the 19th and 20th centuries (n = 6 and 7 respectively), while the remaining two corresponded to the 16th and 18th centuries (n = 1 each) (Table 1). On the other hand, the only two records documented in the 21st century corresponded to opportunistic sightings off the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula in Spanish waters (Fig. 2A-E; Table 1). Both sightings were uploaded to the citizen science platform “Observadores del Mar” (Sea Watchers), and subsequently to GBIF.

The first sighting (GWS 1) occurred on September 29th 2021 at approximately 15:00 hours (GMT+1) near Punta Langosteira (dockland), Galicia, Spain (43.344965° N, 8.516042° W) (Fig. 2A-B). Sea conditions were very good, with fair visibility (0-1 on the Douglas sea scale). The sighting, made by a port worker, lasted only a few minutes. The shark was initially observed from the shore (Fig. 2B) and later alongside a 3.5 m boat (Fig. 2A). The second sighting (GWS 2) was made by fishermen on October 16th 2021 at approximately 07:00 hours (GMT+1), 10 miles north of Ribadesella, Asturias, Spain (43.572028° N, 5.033112° W) (Fig. 2C-E). Sea conditions were again very good, with fair visibility (0-1 on the Douglas sea scale). According to the fishermen and the accompanying images (Fig. 2C-E), the shark swam around the boat for approximately 2 hours. Both sightings were uploaded to the citizen science platform “Observadores del Mar” (Sea Watchers), and also to GBIF. The morphological characteristics of the individuals sighted (Fig. 2A-E) were consistent with descriptions of the species documented in the scientific literature (Compagno, 2001Compagno, L.J.V., 2001. Sharks of the World. Volume 2. Bullhead, Mackerel and Carpet Sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes). FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes No. 1, Vol. 2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 269 pp.; Ebert & Dando, 2021Ebert, D.A. & Dando, M. 2021. Field guide to sharks, rays & chimaeras of Europe and the Mediterranean. Princeton University Press, Woodstock. 383 pp.). In particular, the shape of the body, head, and snout, together with the large size of the individuals, allowed for confident validation of species identification.

Fig. 2. North-western Spain observations of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias Linnaeus, 1758). (A) Close-up of GWS 1. (B) GWS 1 circling a buoy in Punta Langosteira (dockland), Galicia. (C) GWS 2 approaching a boat in Ribadesella, Asturias. (D) GWS 2 circling the boat. (E) Close-up of GWS 2. Images (A–B) show GWS 1, recorded on 29th September 2021 by José María Méndez Laza; images (C–E) show GWS 2, recorded on 16th October 2021 by Juan Carlos González.

Fig. 2. Observaciones de tiburones blancos (Carcharodon carcharias Linnaeus, 1758) en el noroeste de España. (A) Plano cercano de GWS 1. (B) GWS 1 rodeando una boya en la zona portuaria de Punta Langosteira, Galicia. (C) GWS 2 aproximándose a una embarcación en Ribadesella, Asturias. (D) GWS 2 rodeando la embarcación. (E) Plano cercano de GWS 2. Las imágenes (A–B) muestran a GWS 1, registrado el 29 de septiembre de 2021 por José María Méndez Laza; las imágenes (C–E), a GWS 2, registrado el 16 de octubre de 2021 por Juan Carlos González.

Due to the absence of previous confirmed records on the Spanish peninsular coast of the Atlantic Ocean (Table 1), the 2021 sightings represent the first and latest white sharks recorded in this region (Fig. 2A-E). Although neither of the two white sharks could be directly measured, information provided by the present bystanders and specific circumstances, such as GWS 1 being larger than the boat from which it was sighted (3.5 m), led to the estimation that both GWS 1 and GWS 2 measured approximately 5 m in total length (TL) (Fig. 2A-E). Additionally, both sharks exhibited a calm behaviour and maintained a continuous swimming pattern without rapid movements (Fig. 2B-D). Notably, GWS 2 brushed past the boat twice, according to the fisherman’s report.

4. DISCUSSION

The white shark population in Europe is currently listed as Critically Endangered and moderately depleted (Soldo et al., 2015Soldo, A., Bradai, M.N. & Walls, R.H.L., 2015. Carcharodon carcharias (Europe assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T3855A48948790., 2016Soldo, A., Bradai, M.N. & Walls, R.H.L., 2016. Carcharodon carcharias (Mediterranean assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T3855A16527829.; Spaet, 2021Spaet, J.L.Y., 2021. Carcharodon carcharias (Green Status assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T3855A385520213.; Walls & Dulvy, 2021Walls, R.H. & Dulvy, N.K., 2021. Tracking the rising extinction risk of sharks and rays in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Scientific Reports, 11 (1): 15397. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94632-4), reflecting both the species’ vulnerable characteristics (Walls & Dulvy, 2021Walls, R.H. & Dulvy, N.K., 2021. Tracking the rising extinction risk of sharks and rays in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Scientific Reports, 11 (1): 15397. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94632-4), and the generally low number of confirmed records across the region. Our review only found 24 records (Table 1), with 22 coming from a bibliographic search and 2 records contributed by citizen science (Fig. 2A-E; Table 1). Despite the scarcity of confirmed records, there are other unverified reports that suggest its permanent presence in the region. Specifically, Rodríguez Solórzano et al. (1983) Rodríguez Solórzano, M., Devesa Regueiro, S. & Soutullo Garrido, L., 1983. Guía dos peixes de Galicia. Galaxia, Vigo. 35 pp.referenced a potential sighting: “É moi raro no noso litoral. Vimos seis exemplares nunha ocasión na lonxa da Coruña capturados nos palangres do marraxo” (“It is very rare on our coast. We saw six specimens on one occasion in the A Coruña fish market caught on the mako shark longlines”). Furthermore, López Seoane (1887López Seoane, V., 1877. Notas para la fauna gallega. El Eco Ferrolano, Ferrol: 9.) reported that: “Algunas veces llega á las costas de Galicia el tiburon. Ni Cornide, ni Alonso citan esta especie como observada en su tiempo” (“Some sharks occasionally reach the coasts of Galicia. Neither Cornide nor Alonso mentioned this species as having been observed in their time”). These references do not unambiguously confirm the presence of white sharks in the region, as the vague descriptions provided by López Seoane (1887López Seoane, V., 1877. Notas para la fauna gallega. El Eco Ferrolano, Ferrol: 9.) and Rodríguez Solórzano et al. (1983)Rodríguez Solórzano, M., Devesa Regueiro, S. & Soutullo Garrido, L., 1983. Guía dos peixes de Galicia. Galaxia, Vigo. 35 pp., together with the unknown fishing area and absence of photographic evidence in the latter case, preclude a reliable identification. Therefore, there is no conclusive evidence that the specimens described corresponded to white sharks. They were probably records of similar species, such as the porbeagle shark or mako sharks (Isurus spp.), which have been recorded in the area (Bañon et al., 2010Bañon, R., Villegas-Ríos, D., Serrano, A., Mucientes, G. & Arronte, J.C., 2010. Marine fishes from Galicia (NW Spain): an updated checklist. Zootaxa, 2667 (1): 1–27 https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.2667.1.1).

Additionally, there are no confirmed records of white sharks off the United Kingdom or in the North Sea, where sea surface temperatures are likely too cold for the species’ preferences (Bor & Peters, 2015Bor, J.T. & Peters, W., 2015. The Pliocene locality Balgoy (province of Gelderland, The Netherlands) and a new record of the great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758). Cainozoic Research, 15 (1-2): 59-73.). Historical records also show a lack of reliable evidence: Day (1884)Day, F., 1884. The fishes of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 2. Williams and Norgate, London. 289 pp. noted that although the white shark had been included in works on British fishes, the available descriptions, such as those from the Cornish coast or off the Orkneys, do not appear to correspond to specimens from these localities. Based on social media, several unconfirmed records suggest the sporadic presence of white sharks in these regions (Baldwin, 2019Baldwin, M., 2019. Great white shark in British waters? Wildlife Online. Available from: https://www.wildlifeonline.me.uk/articles/view/great-white-shark-in-british-waters [accessed Apr. 2026].). One of the best known potential sightings occurred off Lybster (Scotland), on July 15th 2003 (Carter, 2008Carter, G.S., 2008. Large shark species in northern Scottish waters. The Glasgow Naturalist, 25 (1): 94-95. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/236765), where a large shark (TL estimated at 5.5 m) got entangled in a net while fishing for codling, and a single photograph was taken while it was being disentangled (Carter, 2008Carter, G.S., 2008. Large shark species in northern Scottish waters. The Glasgow Naturalist, 25 (1): 94-95. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/236765; Baldwin, 2019Baldwin, M., 2019. Great white shark in British waters? Wildlife Online. Available from: https://www.wildlifeonline.me.uk/articles/view/great-white-shark-in-british-waters [accessed Apr. 2026].). Despite the alleged evidence, this particular record and several others remain inconclusive and were therefore excluded from this study, as they were not scientifically validated due to the lack of clear supporting data and the possibility of potential misidentifications with porbeagle and mako sharks (Fergusson, 1996Fergusson, I.K., 1996. Distribution and autoecology of the white shark in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. In: A.P. Klimley & D.G. Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press, San Diego: 321–345.). This underscores the challenges in validating sightings of elusive species like the white shark (Huveneers et al., 2018Huveneers, C., Apps, K., Becerril-García, E.E., Bruce, B., Butcher, P.A., Carlisle, A.B., Chapple, T.K., Christiansen, H.M., Cliff, G., Curtis, T.H., Daly-Engel, T.S., Dewar, H., Dicken, M.L., Domeier, M.L., Duffy, C.A.J., Ford, R., Francis, M.P., French, G.C.A., Galván-Magaña, F., García-Rodríguez, E., Gennari, E., Graham, B., Hayden, B., Hoyos-Padilla, E.M., Hussey, N.E., Jewell, O.J.D., Jorgensen, S.J., Kock, A.A., Lowe, C.G., Lyons, K., Meyer, L., Oelofse, G., Oñate-González, E.C., Oosthuizen, H., O’Sullivan, J.B., Ramm, K., Skomal, G.S., Sloan, S., Smale, M.J., Sosa-Nishizaki, O., Sperone, E., Tamburin, E., Towner, A.V., Wcisel, M.A., Weng, K.C. & Werry, J.M., 2018. Future research directions on the “elusive” white shark. Frontiers in Marine Science, 5: 455. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00455; Fontaine et al., 2022Fontaine, A., Simard, A., Brunet, N. & Elliott, K.H., 2022. Scientific contributions of citizen science applied to rare or threatened animals. Conservation Biology, 36 (6): e13976. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13976; Soldo & Bakiu, 2024Soldo, A. & Bakiu, R. 2024. Additional historical records of the great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias (Lamniformes: Lamnidae) in the eastern Adriatic: Updating regional occurrence of a critically endangered shark. Annales: Series Historia Naturalis, 34 (1): 11-20. https://doi.org/10.19233/ASHN.2024.02; Soldo, 2026Soldo, A. 2026. When Citizen Science Becomes Speculation: Evaluating the Reliability of Lamnid Shark Identification from Photographic Records in the Mediterranean. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 14 (2): 173. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse14020173).

Nonetheless, based on the current climate change scenario, there is a possibility that the North East Atlantic could become suitable for white sharks (Skubel et al., 2018Skubel, R.A., Kirtman, B.P., Fallows, C. & Hammerschlag, N., 2018. Patterns of long-term climate variability and predation rates by a marine apex predator, the white shark Carcharodon carcharias. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 587: 129-139. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12424; Franks et al., 2021Franks, B.R., Tyminski, J.P., Hussey, N.E., Braun, C.D., Newton, A.L., Thorrold, S.R., Fischer, G.C., McBride, B. & Hueter, R.E., 2021. Spatio-temporal variability in white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) movement ecology during residency and migration phases in the Western North Atlantic. Frontiers in Marine Science, 8: 744202. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.744202; Osgood et al., 2021Osgood, G.J., White, E.R. & Baum, J.K., 2021. Effects of climate-change-driven gradual and acute temperature changes on shark and ray species. Journal of Animal Ecology, 90: 2547–2559. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13560). Salinas-de-León et al. (2024)Salinas-de-León, P., Zanchi, S. & Moya-Serrano, A.V., 2024. First record of a white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) in Ecuadorian waters coinciding with the 2021 La Niña ENSO event. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 107: 1291–1296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-024-01620-4 documented one specimen in the Galápagos, likely influenced by the 2021 La Niña ENSO event. This particular occurrence, in conjunction with other studies, suggests that the species’ presence may be linked to specific temperature ranges, potentially shifting its distribution towards higher latitudes to match their thermal requirements, as projected by climate change models (Bor & Peters, 2015Bor, J.T. & Peters, W., 2015. The Pliocene locality Balgoy (province of Gelderland, The Netherlands) and a new record of the great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758). Cainozoic Research, 15 (1-2): 59-73.; Franks et al., 2021Franks, B.R., Tyminski, J.P., Hussey, N.E., Braun, C.D., Newton, A.L., Thorrold, S.R., Fischer, G.C., McBride, B. & Hueter, R.E., 2021. Spatio-temporal variability in white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) movement ecology during residency and migration phases in the Western North Atlantic. Frontiers in Marine Science, 8: 744202. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.744202; Lee et al., 2021Lee, K.A., Butcher, P.A., Harcourt, R.G., Patterson, T.A., Peddemors, V.M., Roughan, M., Harasti, D., Smoothey, A.F. & Bradford, R.W., 2021. Oceanographic conditions associated with white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) habitat use along eastern Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 659: 143-159. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps13572; Osgood et al., 2021Osgood, G.J., White, E.R. & Baum, J.K., 2021. Effects of climate-change-driven gradual and acute temperature changes on shark and ray species. Journal of Animal Ecology, 90: 2547–2559. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13560). Furthermore, climate change may indirectly influence white sharks by altering the distribution and abundance of their prey, thereby shaping their movements and habitat use (Skomal et al., 2012Skomal, G.B., Chisholm, J. & Correia, S.J., 2012. Implications of increasing pinniped populations on the diet and abundance of white sharks off the coast of Massachusetts. In: M.L. Domeier (ed.). Global perspectives on the biology and life history of the great white shark. CRC Press, Boca Raton: 405–417.; Huveneers et al., 2018Huveneers, C., Apps, K., Becerril-García, E.E., Bruce, B., Butcher, P.A., Carlisle, A.B., Chapple, T.K., Christiansen, H.M., Cliff, G., Curtis, T.H., Daly-Engel, T.S., Dewar, H., Dicken, M.L., Domeier, M.L., Duffy, C.A.J., Ford, R., Francis, M.P., French, G.C.A., Galván-Magaña, F., García-Rodríguez, E., Gennari, E., Graham, B., Hayden, B., Hoyos-Padilla, E.M., Hussey, N.E., Jewell, O.J.D., Jorgensen, S.J., Kock, A.A., Lowe, C.G., Lyons, K., Meyer, L., Oelofse, G., Oñate-González, E.C., Oosthuizen, H., O’Sullivan, J.B., Ramm, K., Skomal, G.S., Sloan, S., Smale, M.J., Sosa-Nishizaki, O., Sperone, E., Tamburin, E., Towner, A.V., Wcisel, M.A., Weng, K.C. & Werry, J.M., 2018. Future research directions on the “elusive” white shark. Frontiers in Marine Science, 5: 455. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00455; Soldo & Turan, 2025Soldo, A. & Turan, C. 2025. Decreasing trend of great white shark Carcharodon carcharias records in the Mediterranean: A significant population loss or shifts in migration patterns? Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 13 (9): 1704. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13091704). In certain regions, such as the Mediterranean Sea, a northward shift linked to changes in sea surface temperature and the distribution of bluefin tuna Thunnus thynnus (Linnaeus, 1758) has been hypothesised (Soldo & Turan, 2025Soldo, A. & Turan, C. 2025. Decreasing trend of great white shark Carcharodon carcharias records in the Mediterranean: A significant population loss or shifts in migration patterns? Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 13 (9): 1704. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13091704). However, in nearby regions, such as France and the Bay of Biscay (~46.0° N), close to the area where the two observations described in this study were recorded, a significant number of observations of white sharks have been reported (Quero et al., 1978Quero, J.C., Verron, R. & Cattin, Y., 1978. Observations ichtyologiques effectuées en Charente-Maritime en 1977. Annales de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de la Charente-Maritime, 6 (5): 428-439., 1995Quero, J.C., Decamps, P., Emonnet, R. & Vayne, J.J., 1995. Requins de l’ordre des Lamniformes observés dans le Golfe de Gascogne. In: O. Cendrero & I. Olaso (eds.). Actas del IV Coloquio Internacional sobre Oceanografía del Golfo de Vizcaya, Santander: 313–325.) (Fig. 1; Table 1). Fossil records of this species have also been documented in citizen science databases (e.g., GBIF), which may influence the total count of records in this region. Nevertheless, similar to the alleged records in British waters discussed earlier, these records were also excluded from the overall count of this study, given the uncertainty regarding their provenance.

Considering the highly migratory behaviour and the great distances white sharks can travel (Bonfil et al., 2005Bonfil, R., Meÿer, M., Scholl, M.C., Johnson, R., O’Brien, S., Oosthuizen, H., Swanson, S., Kotzen, D. & Paterson, M., 2005. Transoceanic migration, spatial dynamics, and population linkages of white sharks. Science, 310 (5745): 100-103. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1114898; Jorgensen et al., 2010Jorgensen, S.J., Reeb, C.A., Chapple, T.K., Anderson, S., Perle, C., Van Sommeran, S.R. & Block, B.A., 2010. Philopatry and migration of Pacific white sharks. Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences, 277 (1682): 679-688. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2009.1155; Franks et al., 2021Franks, B.R., Tyminski, J.P., Hussey, N.E., Braun, C.D., Newton, A.L., Thorrold, S.R., Fischer, G.C., McBride, B. & Hueter, R.E., 2021. Spatio-temporal variability in white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) movement ecology during residency and migration phases in the Western North Atlantic. Frontiers in Marine Science, 8: 744202. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.744202), it is plausible to consider their occasional presence in Spain, despite their rarity, particularly along the Eastern Atlantic coast. Notably, the last confirmed record of an adult white shark in Spain was in the Mediterranean Sea in 1992 (Barrull & Mate, 2001Barrull, J. & Mate, I., 2001. Presence of the great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758) in the Catalonian Sea (NW Mediterranean): Review and discussion of records, and notes about its ecology. Annales, Series Historia Naturalis, 11 (1): 3-12.; Morey et al., 2003Morey, G., Martínez, M., Massutí, E. & Moranta, J., 2003. The occurrence of white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, around the Balearic Islands (western Mediterranean Sea). Environmental Biology of Fishes, 68: 425–432. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EBFI.0000005789.83761.d8). However, more recent evidence, including a confirmed record of a juvenile individual in 2023 off the coast of Alicante (Spain), indicates that the species still occurs sporadically in Spanish waters, albeit extremely rarely (Báez et al., 2026Báez, J.C., Puerto, M.A., Torreblanca, D., Varela, J.L., Carmona, L. & Macías, D. 2026. New record of white shark, Carcharodon carcharias (Elasmobranchii, Lamniformes, Lamnidae), from the Mediterranean Spanish coast. Acta Ichthyologica et Piscatoria, 56: 27-31. https://doi.org/10.3897/aiep.56.173786). This rarity, in addition to the lack of previous records in this area, combined with facts like the swimming speed of approximately 3.2 km/h (Strong et al., 1996Strong, W.R., Bruce, B.D., Nelson, D.R. & Murphy, R.D., 1996. Population dynamics of white sharks in Spencer Gulf, South Australia. In: A.P. Klimley & D.G. Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press, San Diego: 401–416.) and the size of both sighted white sharks (≈ 5 m TL), it is likely that GWS 1 and GWS 2 are actually the same individual, as the distance between both sighting points is approximately 400 km (Fig. 1). Considering the estimated TL of both observations and the size at sexual maturity of this species, 3.1–4.1 m TL and 4–5 m TL for males and females respectively (Pratt, 1996Pratt, H.L., 1996. Reproduction in the male white shark. In: A.P. Klimley & D.G. Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press, San Diego: 131–138.; Compagno, 2001Compagno, L.J.V., 2001. Sharks of the World. Volume 2. Bullhead, Mackerel and Carpet Sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes). FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes No. 1, Vol. 2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 269 pp.; Tanaka et al., 2011Tanaka, S., Kitamura, T., Mochizuki, T. & Kofuji, K., 2011. Age, growth and genetic status of the white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) from Kashima-nada, Japan. Marine and Freshwater Research, 62 (6): 548-556. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF10130), it can be concluded that the sighted individual was a mature white shark.

Given the absence of aggregations in the Northeast Atlantic, it is unlikely that the presence of the individuals described in this study in Spanish waters is part of a reproductive migration. Instead, it may instead be related to disorientation or feeding behaviours. Observations in other regions, such as the Pacific Ocean, show that the white shark exhibits regular migratory patterns, typically approaching coastal areas to feed during the summer, autumn, and early winter (Carlisle et al., 2012Carlisle, A.B., Kim, S.L., Semmens, B.X., Madigan, D.J., Jorgensen, S.J., Perle, C.R., Anderson, S.D., Chapple, T.K., Kanive, P.E. & Block, B.A., 2012. Using stable isotope analysis to understand the migration and trophic ecology of northeastern Pacific white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias). PLoS ONE, 7 (2): e30492. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030492; Skubel et al., 2018Skubel, R.A., Kirtman, B.P., Fallows, C. & Hammerschlag, N., 2018. Patterns of long-term climate variability and predation rates by a marine apex predator, the white shark Carcharodon carcharias. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 587: 129-139. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12424). Therefore, it is plausible that the reported white sharks were pursuing potential prey, such as schools of fish, cetaceans, other elasmobranchs, or large teleost fishes, such as tuna and swordfish, that inhabit north-western Spanish waters (Borja et al., 2019Borja, A., Amouroux, D., Anschutz, P., Gómez-Gesteira, M., Uyarra, M.C. & Valdés, L., 2019. The Bay of Biscay. In: C. Sheppard (ed.). World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (2nd Ed.), Vol. 1, Elsevier: 113–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805068-2.00006-1). With increasing size and age, the diet of large white sharks (> 3 m) tends to preferentially favour marine mammals, including pinnipeds, small cetaceans, and large whale carcasses (Cliff et al., 1989Cliff, G., Dudley, S.F.J. & Davis, B., 1989. Sharks caught in the protective gillnets off Natal, South Africa: 2. The great white shark Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus). South African Journal of Marine Science, 8: 131–144.; Curtis et al., 2006Curtis, T.H., Kelly, J.T., Menard, K.L., Laroche, R.K., Jones, R.E. & Klimley, A.P., 2006. Observations on the behavior of white sharks scavenging from a whale carcass at Point Reyes, California. California Fish and Game, 92 (3): 113.; Kim et al., 2012Carlisle, A.B., Kim, S.L., Semmens, B.X., Madigan, D.J., Jorgensen, S.J., Perle, C.R., Anderson, S.D., Chapple, T.K., Kanive, P.E. & Block, B.A., 2012. Using stable isotope analysis to understand the migration and trophic ecology of northeastern Pacific white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias). PLoS ONE, 7 (2): e30492. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030492; Skomal et al., 2012Skomal, G.B., Chisholm, J. & Correia, S.J., 2012. Implications of increasing pinniped populations on the diet and abundance of white sharks off the coast of Massachusetts. In: M.L. Domeier (ed.). Global perspectives on the biology and life history of the great white shark. CRC Press, Boca Raton: 405–417.). Additionally, the presence of small pinnipeds in the vicinity of the shark sightings or the increase of large tunids (Thunnus spp.) in the zone at the same time may be contributing factors (Covelo et al., 2011Covelo, P., Martínez-Cedeira, J., Díaz. J.I. & López, A., 2011. Registros de pinnípedos en Galicia, 1990-2010. Resúmenes X Congreso de la SECEM, Fuengirola (Málaga): 30 pp.; López et al., 2017López, A., 2017. Mammalia. In: R. Bañón (ed.). Inventario de la biodiversidad marina de Galicia: Proyecto LEMGAL. Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, Santiago de Compostela: 567–570.; Borja et al., 2019Borja, A., Amouroux, D., Anschutz, P., Gómez-Gesteira, M., Uyarra, M.C. & Valdés, L., 2019. The Bay of Biscay. In: C. Sheppard (ed.). World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (2nd Ed.), Vol. 1, Elsevier: 113–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805068-2.00006-1; Sandoval, pers. comm., 2021). Similar behaviours have been reported off the coast of Massachusetts, where the number of adult sharks increases as the seal pup season approaches, providing higher prey availability (Skomal et al., 2012Skomal, G.B., Chisholm, J. & Correia, S.J., 2012. Implications of increasing pinniped populations on the diet and abundance of white sharks off the coast of Massachusetts. In: M.L. Domeier (ed.). Global perspectives on the biology and life history of the great white shark. CRC Press, Boca Raton: 405–417.). This pattern has also been observed at Guadalupe Island (Mexico) and in the Mediterranean Sea, where white sharks feed on tunids (Morey et al., 2003Morey, G., Martínez, M., Massutí, E. & Moranta, J., 2003. The occurrence of white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, around the Balearic Islands (western Mediterranean Sea). Environmental Biology of Fishes, 68: 425–432. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EBFI.0000005789.83761.d8; Soldo & Dulcic, 2005Soldo, A. & Dulcic, J., 2005. New record of a great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias (Lamnidae) from the eastern Adriatic Sea. Cybium, 29 (1): 89-90.; Domeier, 2009Domeier, M., 2009. Experimental scavenging preference for the adult white shark, Carcharodon carcharias. California Fish and Game, 95 (3): 140-145.; Boldrocchi et al., 2017Boldrocchi, G., Kiszka, J., Purkis, S., Storai, T., Zinzula, L. & Burkholder, D., 2017. Distribution, ecology, and status of the white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, in the Mediterranean Sea. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 27: 515-534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-017-9470-5). The eastward displacement of individuals, rather than southward migration, may be related to the presence of orcas (Orcinus orca Linnaeus, 1758) off the coast of Portugal and north-western Spain contemporary to shark sightings (CEMMA, 2021CEMMA, 2021. Iberian orca, interactions with boats 2021. Available from: https://www.orcaiberica.org/2021 [accessed Apr. 2026].), given that orcas can act as predators of white sharks and influence their distribution (Jorgensen et al., 2019Jorgensen, S.J., Anderson, S., Ferretti, F., Tietz, J.R., Chapple, T., Kanive, P., Bradley, R.W., Moxley, J.H. & Block, B.A., 2019. Killer whales redistribute white shark foraging pressure on seals. Scientific Reports 9 (1): 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-39356-2; Towner et al., 2022Towner, A.V., Watson, R.G.A., Kock, A.A., Papastamatiou, Y., Sturup, M., Gennari, E., Baker, K., Booth, T., Dicken, M., Chivell, W., Elwen, S., Kaschke, T., Edwards, D. & Smale, M.J., 2022. Fear at the top: killer whale predation drives white shark absence at South Africa’s largest aggregation site. African Journal of Marine Science, 44 (2): 139-152. https://doi.org/10.2989/1814232X.2022.2066723; Hammerschlag et al., 2025Hammerschlag, N., Herskowitz, Y., Fallows, C. & Couto, T.B.A., 2025. Evidence of cascading ecosystem effects following the loss of white sharks from False Bay, South Africa. Frontiers in Marine Science, 12: 1530362. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2025.1530362). In the presumed absence of a resident population in the Northeast Atlantic, it is most likely that the white sharks sighted in this area originate from the western side of the Atlantic, and undertake transoceanic migrations (Bonfil et al., 2005Bonfil, R., Meÿer, M., Scholl, M.C., Johnson, R., O’Brien, S., Oosthuizen, H., Swanson, S., Kotzen, D. & Paterson, M., 2005. Transoceanic migration, spatial dynamics, and population linkages of white sharks. Science, 310 (5745): 100-103. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1114898). This species typically moves further north in the Atlantic during the latter part of the year, particularly in the regions of New Jersey and Canada (Curtis et al., 2014Curtis, T.H., McCandless, C.T., Carlson, J.K., Skomal, G.B., Kohler, N.E., Natanson, L.J., Burgess, G.H., Hoey, J.J. & Pratt Jr, H.L., 2014. Seasonal distribution and historic trends in abundance of white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, in the western North Atlantic Ocean. PLoS ONE, 9 (6): e99240. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099240; Skomal et al., 2017Skomal, G.B., Braun, C.D., Chisholm, J.H. & Thorrold, S.R. 2017. Movements of the white shark Carcharodon carcharias in the North Atlantic Ocean. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 580: 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12306; Franks et al., 2021Franks, B.R., Tyminski, J.P., Hussey, N.E., Braun, C.D., Newton, A.L., Thorrold, S.R., Fischer, G.C., McBride, B. & Hueter, R.E., 2021. Spatio-temporal variability in white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) movement ecology during residency and migration phases in the Western North Atlantic. Frontiers in Marine Science, 8: 744202. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.744202).

Regardless of the drivers behind the presence of white sharks in Spanish waters, gaining insight into their distribution in the Northeast Atlantic is a priority, primarily due to data scarcity and the critical conservation status of this species (Smart et al., 2013Smart, J.J., Harry, A.V., Tobin, A.J. & Simpfendorfer, C.A., 2013. Overcoming the constraints of low sample sizes to produce age and growth data for rare or threatened sharks. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 23 (1): 124-134. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.2274; Soldo et al., 2015Soldo, A., Bradai, M.N. & Walls, R.H.L., 2015. Carcharodon carcharias (Europe assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T3855A48948790.; Walls & Dulvy, 2021). While we cannot definitively conclude whether the white sharks have come to stay on the Iberian coast, alternative methodologies should be employed to further determine their distribution and abundance. Adopting a similar approach to the Mediterranean white shark strategy described by Ferretti et al. (2024)Ferretti, F., Shea, B.D., Gambardella, C., Jenrette, J.F., Moro, S., Echwikhi, K., Schallert, R.J., Gallagher, A.J., Block, B.A. & Chapple, T.K., 2024. On the tracks of white sharks in the Mediterranean Sea. Frontiers in Marine Science, 11: 1425511. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1425511 would be desirable. This strategy combines traditional tools (e.g., collaboration with fishing communities and underwater recording systems) with novel methods such as environmental DNA and predictive modelling analyses (Pikitch, 2018Pikitch, E.K., 2018. A tool for finding rare marine species. Science, 360 (6394): 1180–1182. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao3787; Jenrette et al., 2023Jenrette, J.F., Jenrette, J.L., Truelove, N.K., Moro, S., Dunn, N.I., Chapple, T.K., Gallagher, A.J., Gambardella, C., Schallert, R., Shea, B.D., Curnick, D.J., Block, B.A. & Ferretti, F., 2023. Detecting Mediterranean white sharks with environmental DNA. Oceanography, 36 (1): 87-89. https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2023.s1.28; Ferretti et al., 2024Ferretti, F., Shea, B.D., Gambardella, C., Jenrette, J.F., Moro, S., Echwikhi, K., Schallert, R.J., Gallagher, A.J., Block, B.A. & Chapple, T.K., 2024. On the tracks of white sharks in the Mediterranean Sea. Frontiers in Marine Science, 11: 1425511. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1425511; Panunzi et al., 2025Panunzi, G., Moro, S., Marques, I., Martino, S., Colloca, F., Ferretti, F. & Jona Lasinio, G., 2025. Estimating the spatial distribution of the white shark in the Mediterranean Sea via an integrated species distribution model accounting for physical barriers. Environmetrics, 36 (1): e2876. https://doi.org/10.1002/env.2876). Beyond these actions, citizen science might also play an important role in tracking rare and threatened species like white sharks (Fontaine et al., 2022Fontaine, A., Simard, A., Brunet, N. & Elliott, K.H., 2022. Scientific contributions of citizen science applied to rare or threatened animals. Conservation Biology, 36 (6): e13976. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13976; Carrasco-Puig et al. 2025Carrasco-Puig, P., Miralles, L., Colmenero, A.I. & Barría, C., 2025. Occurrence of juvenile porbeagle sharks (Lamna nasus) in the northern coast of Spain. Journal of Fish Biology, 106 (3): 969–974. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfb.15984; Soldo, 2026Soldo, A. 2026. When Citizen Science Becomes Speculation: Evaluating the Reliability of Lamnid Shark Identification from Photographic Records in the Mediterranean. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 14 (2): 173. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse14020173). Such methods may facilitate a more accurate assessment of their presence in the Northeast Atlantic (Huveneers et al., 2018; Pikitch, 2018Pikitch, E.K., 2018. A tool for finding rare marine species. Science, 360 (6394): 1180–1182. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao3787; Ferretti et al., 2024Ferretti, F., Shea, B.D., Gambardella, C., Jenrette, J.F., Moro, S., Echwikhi, K., Schallert, R.J., Gallagher, A.J., Block, B.A. & Chapple, T.K., 2024. On the tracks of white sharks in the Mediterranean Sea. Frontiers in Marine Science, 11: 1425511. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1425511). This will require a cooperative approach between scientific, governmental, and local communities (Jorgensen et al., 2022Jorgensen, S.J., Micheli, F., White, T.D., Van Houtan, K.S., Alfaro-Shigueto, J., Andrzejaczek, S., Arnoldi, N.S., Baum, J.K., Block, B., Britten, G.L., Butner, C., Caballero, S., Cardeñosa, D., Chapple, T.K., Clarke, S., Cortés, E., Dulvy, N.K., Fowler, S., Gallagher, A.J., Gilman, E., Godley, B.J., Graham, R.T., Hammerschlag, N., Harry, A.V., Heithaus, M.R., Hutchinson, M., Huveneers, C., Lowe, C.G., Lucifora, L.O., MacKeracher, T., Mangel, J.C., Martins, A.P.B., McCauley, D.J., McClenachan, L., Mull, C., Natanson, L.J., Pauly, D., Pazmiño, D.A., Pistevos, J.C.A., Queiroz, N., Roff, G., Shea, B.D., Simpfendorfer, C.A., Sims, D.W., Ward-Paige, C., Worm, B. & Ferretti, F., 2022. Emergent research and priorities for shark and ray conservation. Endangered Species Research, 47: 171–203. https://doi.org/10.3354/esr01169), in order to fill pervasive knowledge gaps on the biology and ecology of such an iconic species, particularly as it becomes increasingly vulnerable to extinction in certain areas, including the Northeast Atlantic.

Supplementary information ↑

Funding sources

Not applicable.

Supplementary material

Not applicable.

Data availability

Not applicable.

Acknowledgements

We are especially grateful to José María Méndez Lanza and Juan Carlos González, who documented and reported the sightings, and generously provided footage and images. We also thank Jorge Rabina, Luís Laría and Gorka Ocio, who guided us and facilitated access to information, and Antonio Sandoval, who provided information on tunid sightings from Estaca de Bares Cape (NW Spain). Alfredo López is funded by national funds (OE), through FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., in the scope of the framework contract foreseen in the numbers 4, 5 and 6 of the article 23 of the Decree-Law 57/2016, of August 29, changed by Law 57/2017, of July 19.

Authorship contribution statement

Claudio Barría: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Ana I. Colmenero: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Alfredo López: Investigation, Resources, Writing – review & editing.

Pablo Covelo: Investigation, Resources, Writing – review & editing.

Xabier Vázquez-Pumariño: Investigation, Resources, Writing – review & editing.

Pol Carrasco-Puig: Investigation, Software, Visualization, Writing –original draft, Writing– review & editing.

Gonzalo Mucientes: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Validation, Writing – review & editing.

Competing interests

The authors of this article declare that they have no financial, professional or personal conflicts of interest that could have inappropriately influenced this work.

Statement on the use of Artificial Intelligence

Not applicable.

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